Parental Attachment and the Development of Self-Compassion Free Essays

Modern Day Hero VS. Anglo-Saxon Hero :: Comparison Compare Contrast Essays

Cutting edge Hero VS. Old English Saxon Hero During the Anglo-Saxon period, individuals revered Hero's. Here are several different ways how an advanced saint can be contrasted with one before. Nolan Ryan will be my decision of a great cutting edge legend. One of the firsts of a legend's trademark is that he performs Exceptional Deeds. On page thirty-five in Beowulf Higlac's bold devotee removing his hand of the beast, his disdain ascended higher however his capacity has gone. So to me that could be called an exceptional deed. Presently Nolan Ryan isn't a War legend however a baseball player. He was forty-five at that point and he had tossed 5,511 strikeouts, witch is a record that won't be broken at any point in the near future. Another approach to be known as a legend is to give incredible talks. On page 31 of Beowulf Hail Hrothagi............. Beowulf is generally excellent at this yet then again Nolan Ryan is a modest man. So he never truly gave discourses. The third trait of a saint is to brag about his accomplishments. Beowulf works admirably of gloating in this next line in Beowulf on page 31, And I am more grounded than anybody on the planet. To me that is an except ionally enormous brag on Beowulf's part. Presently for Nolan Ryan he is a humble man and never had any motivation to gloat about anything, his numbers did the talking for him. Presently the remainder of the of attributes that will be that he plunged from Royalty. Presently on page 31 in Beowulf, Higlac is my cousin and my King. Now then again Nolan Ryan's situation in baseball had nothing to do with his family. He was noticing in excess of a nation kid from Alvin, Texas. Presently those were normal for an Anglo-Saxon saint that are altogether different from those of a cutting edge legend. The first of them is if the Public eye loves the legend to be modest and have great sportsmanship. Nolan Ryan never circumvented provoking his adversaries or discussing how great he is. In any case, then again Beowulf talked exceptionally of himself. I don't figure the general population would have enjoyed that particularly about him. Another trait of a cutting edge saint is his appearance. Nolan was a gorgeous person. He did wrangler pants advertisements. He additionally did TV plugs for Advil.

Strategic Leadership Guide Definition, Qualities, Pros Cons, Examples

Strategic Leadership Guide Definition, Qualities, Pros Cons, Examples “We can’t solve problems using the same kind of thinking we used when we created them.” â€" Albert EinsteinThe above quote by Albert Einstein perfectly captures the need of strategy and the essence of strategic leadership. In order to solve problems and move forward, people need to interpret the world around them with a fresh insight and vision. While it’s easy to think that most leaders would go ahead with a strategy, all too often the idea of the strategic leadership framework is misunderstood as simply having a plan of action. The leadership style is much more than just an idea of how to implement certain policies or processes. © Shutterstock.com | Sergey NivensIn this guide, we’ll examine the defining characteristics of strategic leadership and its purpose in business. We’ll also explain the core elements of the framework, as well as the requirements it imposes on a strategic leader. Before analyzing a few examples of strategic leaders in a variety of sectors, we’ll outline the advantages and disadvantages of the style.UNDERSTANDING THE DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIPIn order to understand what the strategic framework looks like in action, you need to dissect it. This essentially means looking at the definition of strategy and how it can be linked to leadership. Furthermore, you need to examine the purpose of strategic leadership, as it can help realize the requirements and objectives of using this style.What is strategy?Strategy is definitely a word the business world can’t get enough of. It is regularly flashed around, but what exactly does it mean to define things as strategic? T he word is derived from the Greek word ‘stratêgia’, which means “art of troop leader; office of general, command, general ship’.The Oxford dictionary defines strategy as, “a plan of action designed to achieve a long-term or overall aim’.Therefore, strategy is about drawing up a set of steps and processes, which can help in achieving a pre-determined objective. To have a strategy, you need to first formulate an understanding of the situation and the objectives at hand. Once you’ve formulated an action plan, you must implement it, following the guidelines you’ve established.For a deeper analysis of strategy, the below presentation by professor Michael E. Porter offers an in-depth analysis of the different aspects of strategy:[slideshare id=30278968doc=whatisstrategy-140121192811-phpapp01w=640h=330]If you consider strategy as a selection of decisions or choices, which are aimed at achieving a specific goal in order to succeed, you can notice the link it has to leadersh ip. In essence, leadership is about the ability to take actions that guide a group, such as an organization, towards set objectives.Therefore, strategy adds another layer to leadership and is just another framework to use when leaders are considering the actions and processes they want to use in order to communicate, motivate and direct the group they are supposed to lead. Just like the authoritarian leadership or the charismatic leadership, the strategic leadership provides the leader with the framework for guiding the troops.There are a number of different ways to define strategic leadership, but in essence, the definition in the Business Dictionary is an apt one. According to the definition, strategic leadership is “the process of using well considered tactics to communicate a vision for an organisation or one of its parts”. Furthermore, the framework uses a specific set of actions in order to achieve its objectives. The tactics referred to in the definition combine different management methods, motivation of subordinates, and persuasion techniques.What is the aim of strategic leadership?It’s essential to understand that strategic leadership isn’t just a tool for organizing a group or managing the operational aspect of a company. The purpose of the strategy involves changing or creating an organizational structure, which is better equipped for achieving the organizations goals. Therefore, the aim of strategic leadership always includes an aspect of transformation. It is about creating a vision that helps to move the organization from point A to point B.The requirement for change can stem from a variety of places and it doesn’t need to necessarily be about saving a failing organization, for instance. While strategic leadership is helpful in boosting company performance and could help solve the structural issues within an organization, the transformation can be driven by a positive need to reinvent rather than just finding ways to survive.Nonetheles s, improvements in productivity are often at the heart of strategic leadership. In a typical strategic leadership framework, these changes are supported by subordinate development rather than cuts in the operational structure.The style believes in empowerment through enhanced understanding, which is mainly driven by its focus on both short- and long-term objectives. Strategic leadership is never about a quick fix, as it requires the organization to look to the future whenever it is implementing a change or making a decision. Therefore, things, such as firing employees, can be seen as counterproductive in terms of future growth and succession planning, for example.Overall, the aim of strategic leadership is to prepare the organization for whatever future might bring. The style calls for predictive behavior and analytical decision-making. Actions should not be taken simply by focusing on the current, but each decision needs to implement an understanding of different future events and possibilities. The vision for the organization should focus on the future and the strategic leadership model needs to prepare the organization for whatever the future might have in store for it.THE CORE ELEMENTS OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIPThe above provides the basis for understanding strategic leadership, as it helps to forge the basis components of what the style is about. In order to go deeper into the workings of the framework, you need to examine the different components of it.In this section, we’ll first explore the essential components of the leadership style, before outlining the key steps a strategic leader needs to take for the framework to work efficiently and effectively.The essential components of strategic leadershipAs we’ve mentioned before, strategic leadership is often considered similar to any operational leadership, i.e. the creation of an action plan. But the differences are there, with the most obvious issue being how operational leadership is just about directi ng resources to a certain part of the business to achieve a specific goal. On the other hand, strategic leadership is more about the transformation of the business, rather than achieving a specific goal. It’s about an overall vision and leadership, rather than a specific way of obtaining a desired outcome.Richard L. Hughes and Katherine Colarelli Beatty, faculty members of Center for Creative Leadership (CCL), explored the core elements of the strategic leadership framework and found there to be three major elements that set the style apart from other leadership frameworks. In their book, Becoming a Strategic Leader: Your role in Your Organization’s Enduring Success, they focus on the elements of scope, vision and change.Firstly, the strategic leadership framework is broad in scope. In order for the style to work efficiently, the leader’s role is to understand the business is both interdependent and interconnected. Unlike in the operational leadership style, the focus is not o n examining the impact of a single action to the immediate surroundings, but rather discovering how a decision in one sector will influence the whole of the organization. Therefore, strategic leadership is constantly evaluating the broad impact of actions and decisions, even when they don’t seem directly connected to different parts. The strategic leadership framework requires awareness of the whole organization, instead of just certain aspects of it.The second defining element of the framework is its future-focused application. Strategic leadership is aimed at finding a balance between the long-term focus of styles, such as transformational leadership, and the short-term focused style of transactional leadership. The aim is to integrate the short-term decisions, which are a necessary part of any organization and its decision-making, with the far-reaching outlook. The leadership needs a long-term focus and vision to be part of the decision making process when it comes to implement ing short-term solutions. In essence, the strategic leader must look at the impact an action might have on the short- and long-term.Thirdly, the leadership framework is change oriented. There is a strong transformational element to strategic leadership. The framework sets out to have a deep impact on the organizations vision and values, as well as its structure and systems. The style sets out to create more clarity and operational strength throughout it, with the leader having the biggest role in achieving this. As we’ll explain in the next section, the strategic leader must possess specific qualities and abilities in order to have a deep impact on the operational culture.The above elements provide the cornerstone for strategic leadership. Perhaps more importantly, they also set it apart from some of the other leadership styles. Although many styles utilize the above points to some extent, they aren’t always working simultaneously.Interested in becoming a strategic leader? Watch this great presentation. The key steps of strategic leadershipWhen it comes to the implementation of strategic leadership, the structure that requires is rather direct. It starts with the understanding of the organization. The first step to starting a company-wide transformation begins with the realization of why the company exists. Every organization has a mission; a goal it works towards.Before a leader can start fixing the processes or help subordinates be more productive, he or she needs to be aware of the purpose of the organization. For example, a company such as Soylent, which produces food supplements, has a purpose that is about ensuring people can stay healthy and get their nutrients whenever and wherever they are. In order for the strategy to work, and frankly for the company to survive in today’s market, it has to answer the question ‘Why?’Related to the understanding of the company’s purpose is the realization of facts about its customers. The second step is th erefore about figuring out who the customers are and what they want from the company. It might seem rather obvious, but the strategic leader has to understand the customer base as much as possible. The most important questions to answer are:What are the different types of customers the organization has?Why are the customers choosing the organization?What can the organization do better to increase the value the customers receive?As the above questions are answered, the strategic leader is more able to devise an operational vision for the organization that will help the company achieve its objectives, both in the short- and long-term.Once the above concepts are understood and analyzed, the leadership framework can move on to the third step of creating a vision for the organization, matching the demands of the customers and the company. The leader’s role essentially is to align the purpose of the company with the customer needs, creating a strategy that helps the organization to fulf ill it’s goals and to provide customers the value they are looking for. The vision will be the framework for further action and it should guide the decision-making at all times.The final step is, therefore, a process of crafting a strategy of steps that help realize the vision. The idea is for the leadership model to transform the company from its current state to the defined and desired state. It’s important to note that this doesn’t necessarily mean strategic leadership only works for organizations that are in trouble. An organization can wish to move from place A to place B without it being driven by financial trouble, for instance. The transformational element of strategic leadership is simply about enhancing the company’s operations and perhaps changing the direction completely.In their book, Hughes and Colarelli Beatty suggested that strategic leadership is essentially about answering three important questions: What? Who? How? You can see these questions clearly if you look at the steps above, as well as the three key elements of the framework.The ‘What’ question for strategic leadership is about identifying the aspects the organization can improve and focus on in order to achieve better results. It closely deals with understanding the purpose of the organization and the needs of the customer. According to Hughes and Colarelli Beatty, the strategic leadership framework needs to focus on establishing strategy as a learning process. This is comprised of the following five points:Identify your current position.Recognize your purpose and the position you want to achieve.Realize the steps required to get there.Put the strategy in action.Assess and re-evaluate your progress.The ‘Who’ in strategic leadership is about identifying the people that are crucial for the implementation of the above plan. Although the strategic leader is key in the process, the framework doesn’t exclude the input and involvement of the subordinates, such as some other leadership styles might do (see authoritarian leadership, for example). The strategic leadership should include both bottom-up decision-making, as well as the traditional top-down leadership. Hughes and Colarelli Beatty emphasize in their book that strategic leadership is not a framework solely created by individuals, such as the leader, but a collaborative activity.Finally, the framework deals with the ‘How’, which is about the processes used for achieving the ‘what’ by the ‘who’. According to the book, the strategic leadership framework is driven by:Strategic thinking, which means having a vision for the organization and seeing innovative ways to overcome challenges.Strategic acting, which is an effort to implement the above discoveries.Strategic influencing, which deals with creating the right conditions for the organization to operate.THE QUALITIES OF STRATEGIC LEADERWhen it comes to being a leader, it often takes specific personality traits and skills to pull off a certain leadership style. Strategic leaders are no different and the qualities of these leaders have been extensively studied as well. Below are some of the core traits strategic leaders should have and the abilities they need in order to lead strategically.The characteristics of a strategic leaderThe strategic leadership model requires plenty from its leader. Since the leader has to be involved with every aspect of the organization, the needed characteristics emphasize the leader’s people skills and organizational abilities. The below five are the key characteristics a strategic leader should focus on developing in order to succeed.InquisitiveStrategic leaders need to be able to look at complex situations and come up with the best solutions for moving forward. Therefore, the leader must be curious about the options and be able to question things. If you don’t feel inquisitive, you won’t be able to find strategic solutions to questions, as you’ll just rely on things you’v e previously learned.Inquisitive personality can provide leaders a number of benefits. It can help in building relationship with other people because you are curious about their worldview and opinions. But it also makes learning new things easier. If you are able to find an angle that interests you, learning about almost anything is much easier and more fun.When you learn new things, you naturally become better at leading since your understanding of the world is better. You can make connections and get a fresh insight by looking at things from new perspectives, rather than just staying inside your comfort zone.Improving your inquisitive nature isn’t difficult to do. You simply need to start asking more questions, commit yourself to trying out new things and in immersing yourself with whatever you are doing. But it also requires you to admit that you don’t have all the answers and that you occasionally will be wrong about things.ResourcefulThe above trait relates to the second ch aracteristic strategic leaders possess which is all about resourcefulness. By becoming more curious about the world and the industry you work in, you’ll also enhance your ability to provide more things to the table. You become resourceful, as you have different skills, knowledge and understanding in your luggage.According to Jason Shen, entrepreneur and product manager at Etsy, there are two types of resourcefulness you need to use. The first is about the internal resources you have at your grasp, directly related to your ability to be innovative. The second type is about the external things you need, but which you can’t control. These require you to interact with others and to find different ways to answer your problem. To improve your resourcefulness in terms of both these types, Shen suggests you need to be able to:Endure discomfort. This is about handling rejection, uncertainty and even the odd case of failure without it being the end of you or your goals.Communicate clearly . You need to develop the skills to convince people of your vision.Persevere through the storms. Being a leader or building a business are not easy things to do, but resourceful people have the grit to get through these with tenacity and determination.Finally, Shen believes it takes three steps to become a truly resourceful person: improving your knowledge, taking action, and repeating the two steps until you reach your destination.InfluentialThe above two characteristics are not enough to convince other people of your leadership qualities or guarantee they trust your vision. You need to be able to use your influence to get people on board. Influential people can succeed in achieving objectives because they make it easy for others to trust and listen to them. If you can’t get others to buy into your plan, you won’t be able to achieve it.The ability to influence is especially important for strategic leaders because they are often implementing strategies others might not find as e asy to follow. Changing a system around in a business, for example, can be difficult. The better you are at ensuring others trust you vision, the easier it will be to move towards the goals.Fast Company outlines seven easy ways you can improve your influence over others:Becoming a better listener.Learning to read body language and making decisions based on that.Acknowledging the accomplishments of other people.Seeking advice and assistance, even if you don’t necessarily always need it.Improving your ability to remember personal details of your subordinates.Letting other people know you trust their abilities.Finding common ground with the people you meet.CompassionateYou might have noticed how all of the above characteristics emphasize the leader’s ability to listen to others and to understand their perspective. Therefore, for the strategic leader to achieve his or her objectives, compassion becomes a key trait to use. If you are able to show compassion to other people, especiall y to your subordinates, you are able to gain their trust and respect. This can help in achieving the objectives and getting the followers on board with your vision.In addition, compassion towards others also helps you to understand more about the different ways of looking at things and it could teach you a lot about creative thinking. By asking questions and looking at the view of the subordinate, you can perhaps find new and better ways of dealing with certain issues.Tiny Buddha has plenty of materials on the website for embracing compassion. But in one of the posts, Kavetha Sundaramoorthy, sets out six simple ways you could show more compassion:Focusing more on listening to other people.Understanding the emotion behind people’s actions.Creating a support system around you.Seeing people as a whole person, not just focusing on the negative or positive aspects of them.Placing yourself in the other person’s shoes and focusing on the emotional experiences they might be going throug h.Forgiving failure whenever it happens, whether you make the mistake or when someone else fails.CommunicativeFinally, a strategic leader must possess brilliant communication skills. Since you need to be able to manage and inspire the workforce, you must be able to get your message across in a clear manner. Furthermore, strategic leaders are often hands on with the job, which means communicating directly with customers and other stakeholders. If you can converse easily, you can get other people more invested in your chosen strategy.While most characteristics on the list are qualities anyone can improve and train, communication skills are perhaps the easiest trait to master â€" you don’t need to be a natural in communication, as you can implement easy strategies in order to improve your skills. The key to a good communication comes from:Learning to listen â€" Don’t listen passively and wait for your turn to speak, but engage in the listening process. Pay attention to what the per son is saying and even repeat the key points in your head.Use the BRIEF method â€" When you are communicating with a person, you should use the BRIEF method to keep your message concise and clear. The acronym stands for background, reason, information, end, and follow-up.Pay attention to your body language â€" Sometimes our body language can tell a bigger story than the words we use. If you are turned away from the person you are talking to, you look elsewhere when he or she speaks, or you play with your thumbs constantly, you will implicate boredom to the person.The core abilities you need to lead strategicallyOn top of the above traits, strategic leaders also need three core abilities, which lay out the foundation for the action plan in the strategic leadership framework. These three abilities include:The ability to interpret. A strategic leader must be able to interpret complex situations in order to draw the right conclusions for making decisions. The leader must be able to revi ew the situation at hand and understand the intricate details surrounding the issues. This includes things such as interpreting the current subordinate mood and productivity, the direction of the company and the industry, and customer needs.The ability to anticipate. As well as being able to read the current situation and what the different elements around the business or project mean, the leader must be forward-looking. Strategic leadership requires the ability to anticipate the future and the different outcomes, as well as the situations that could influence and change these predictions. The actions the leader takes now must be aware of the different roads ahead for the business.The ability to decide. But the leader cannot be inactive or spend too much time simply thinking about the different possibilities. The future and its many outcomes cannot stop the strategic leader from making decisions, because inaction can damage the business. Therefore, a strategic leader is able to inte rpret and predict and then come to a conclusion which tells the direction the company will move towards. Although strategic leadership is not about barking orders to subordinates, the leader’s role is still to point out the direction and coach the team towards it.Finally, to get an insight into some of the abilities and skills strategic leaders need, watch the below video of Starbucks CEO Howard Schultz explaining the habits of strategic leader. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIPWhen it comes to analyzing any leadership framework, you can’t just examine the strengths of the theory and the possible benefits of it. You must also focus on understanding the possible drawbacks of the style.Not only can a balanced view of the advantages and disadvantages of the leadership theory help you realize whether it is the right style for you as a leader or for the organization, but also to ensure you implement the framework correctly and minimize the risk of the disadvantages .So, what are the strengths and weaknesses of strategic leadership?Advantages of strategic leadershipThe implementation of strategic leadership has the obvious benefit of strategy. Any framework, which utilizes carefully constructed ideas of how to move forward, will benefit over a system of reactive actions. If you create a plan focusing on the long-term vision, as well as the short-term actions that support the vision, you create a stronger structure for operating.The framework essentially provides more clarity in the decision-making process because it sets out the benchmarks of which actions and choices are measured against. The leader and the subordinates have a roadmap ahead of them, which guides them in all of their actions. Furthermore, since strategic leadership emphasizes the whole organization, rather than a narrow focus on specific sections, the entire organization will be moving towards the same goal.Choices within the team or the organization are not done by narrow-mind ed understanding of what is best for the specific moment, but with the clarity of realizing the impact the decision has on other parts of the organization and the long-term goals of the company. Therefore, it removes or at least limits the possibility of the organization not following the same guidelines or working in hindrance to other parts of it. The internal conflict is limited, as the decision-making process always requires consideration of other parts of the business.Overall, strategic leadership adds more clarity to operations as well. Having a clearly defined vision will make it easier for subordinates to understand why things are done the way they are. The objectives are clear, making it easier to implement procedures that move the organization towards them. Strategic leadership doesn’t just focus on the operational structure and the decision-making processes of the organization, but also the corporate culture and values.Therefore, it adds clarity since each of these aspe cts are clearly outlined, ensuring there are boundaries to guide the overall direction of the business. This can have a strong impact in ensuring the success and positive transformation within the organization and its operations.In addition, the strategic leadership’s action plan creates a set of objectives and tasks, which are clearly defined. This creates a situation where each of these goals and processes can be measured. By measuring performance and achievement, the organization can create a stronger understanding of what it is doing right and the areas it needs to develop and improve further. Furthermore, as studies have shown, the ability to measure performance can improve productivity much faster than if you don’t examine the elements while working towards an objective.Finally, strategic leadership has the advantage of providing an organizational perspective. What this means is that by examining the different components and trying to predict the future, the leadership fra mework has a wider understanding of the organizational components. Not only does the framework help understand how specific sectors within the company impact each other, it also provides a deeper insight into how the organization relates to the wider industry.This organizational perspective can help the company better prepare against competition and the future changes within the market, ensuring it is equipped to answer when changes take place in the sector.Disadvantages of strategic leadershipDespite its numerous advantages, strategic leadership does have elements that can cause problems to an organization and its followers. Most of the drawbacks could be limited with proper implementation, but it’s nonetheless crucial to understand the limitations of the framework.First problem comes from the style’s reliance on predicting the future. When it comes to drafting the policies and guidelines, the framework tries to assess what the future might bring and therefore to understand its impact on the operations. After the predictions, the strategic framework implements the decisions it sees fit with this information in mind.The problem is that predicting the future is not only hard, but it’s impossible. It naturally helps to consider the different elements and to look into the possibilities of ‘what might be’. But relying on guesswork will never guarantee the choices you make are the correct ones.The issue can manifest in two different ways. First, the organization might take a gloomy approach to the future and try reading into different worst-case scenarios. But if you try limiting problems too much, you can end up stalling the company’s growth and productivity. Risk-taking is not always a bad idea. On the other hand, you could predict the future with rose-tinted glasses and end up hurting the organization by avoiding proper risk-management.Finding a balance between the two is not necessarily as easy as it might sound either. Finally, the future can alway s throw unforeseen elements in the company’s path. Even by carefully analyzing history and the current market conditions, it’s impossible to predict what the industry would look like in ten or even five years time because of the technological advancements, for instance.Although strategic leadership framework tries to find a balance between the short- and long-term objectives, even the limited focus on long-term goals can hinder the short-term profitability and productivity of a company. As the choices the company makes will always consider the long-term impact of them, the creation of profit and improvements in productivity might take a second-place in the decision-making process. In certain companies, this could be a potential problem in dealing with investors and other stakeholders. Furthermore, if an organization is in an immediate trouble financially, for example, the strategic leadership style can be too slow to react to the issues.Overall, the strategic leadership style ca n be rather inflexible. In order to counter the rigidness, the framework has to emphasize innovation in its action plan. If it doesn’t, creativity can stifle. This is down to the fact that strategy often creates established routines, which can lead to the organization becoming slow in reacting to change. In addition, the formal processes can generate an environment where new opportunities are not properly explored, but are simply rejected based on the set vision and strategy. In addition to inflexibility, the strategic leadership framework is a rather complex one to implement.In general, the proper implementation of it can be difficult and lead to many of the above problems. The complexity stems from the need to consider both short- and long-term objectives, as well as the ability to analyze the current and future trends within the organization and outside of it. Therefore, the style is rather difficult to implement, and it can take a long-time for it to provide the results the le ader and the organization are after.How to take smart risks according to  Sage CEO Stephen Kelly. EXAMPLES OF FAMOUS STRATEGIC LEADERSThe world has witnessed plenty of leaders and some have been excellent, while others have failed to convince the public of their leadership qualities. Different leaders have also used various leadership styles and studying these leaders’ examples is a good way to learn about the specific frameworks.In terms of strategic leaders, there are examples in the world of business, sport, politics and even entertainment, such as the film industry. Below are three examples of strategic leaders.Hillary Rodham ClintonPolitics requires plenty of strategic abilities because of the dynamic nature of the industry. A political leader needs to have a vision and a plan for achieving the objectives in order to succeed. While there are many examples of political leaders who’ve used strategic leadership, Hillary Rodham Clinton is one such example. The former Secretary of State and the First Lady of the US has applied visionary thinking with actual strategies of getting things done.One of the clearest examples of her strategic abilities came during her husband’s first presidency. Mrs Clinton was in charge of transforming the country’s healthcare system, even at a great personal cost. The issue had been brewing in the US for a long time, but no one had the vision and strength to implement change within the sector. Although Mrs Clinton failed to implement the kind of healthcare plan she and her husband wanted to, the process did start a conversation in the country and eventually helped President Barack Obama pass his healthcare reforms.Furthermore, Mrs Clinton applied the steps of a strategic leader during the process. She studied the healthcare system in the country closely and the problems it faced, she set up systems to get the citizens involved with the process, she outlined a detailed program for achieving the objectives the committee set o ut, and worked together with both American political parties in order to implement those changes.Steven SpielbergA rather different example of a strategic leader comes from the world of entertainment. The award-winning director Steven Spielberg has showcased how the leadership framework can be used when contributing to the world of cinema as well.Not only has his movies applied visionary and strategic tactics that enthral the audience   consider, for example, his decision to not show the shark until the final stages of Jaws â€" but also in how he approaches his projects as a whole. Spielberg is not afraid to tackle the big social issues that are being debated and his style of creating movies is therefore challenging and forward-looking.Ed Burns, an actor who worked with Spielberg in the movie Saving Private Ryan, gave interesting insights into how the director operates in his book Independent Ed. Business Insider reported on how Burns writes about Spielberg’s unique way of leadin g actors to discover their own way, instead of fully directing them towards the right direction. The director simply explains the vision and then leaves the actors to making the right decisions based on this vision. To Spielberg, it’s not about telling others what to do, but helping them understand the direction together.Interestingly, Spielberg has also directed a film of another strategic leader, US President Abraham Lincoln. The award-winning film clearly showcases an understanding of the strategic leadership framework and in the below interview, Spielberg discusses the movie and Lincoln’s leadership in an interesting way. Howard HughesHoward Hughes might be among the most eccentric leaders the business world has ever seen, but the mysterious and elusive billionaire showcased certain strategic leadership qualities during his time. Although the businessman will be best remembered for spending his final years in secret and in fear of germs, he was able to completely transform t he world of aviation and entertainment before his compulsive problems took hold.Hughes was born into a wealthy family, but he had to quickly take responsibility of the business empire when his mother died when he was just 16 and his father soon followed her. Hughes understood himself as a leader and an entrepreneur, but not as a crafter. He hired an administrator to help with the daily grind. The account named Noah Dietrich ran most of the operations, but Hughes outlined the vision for the business and indulged himself with other projects on the side.His love affair with airplanes led him to start building his own aircrafts. Hughes had a clear vision: he wanted to create the fastest aircraft in the world. Eventually, he managed to do that and simultaneously transformed the aviation industry as we know it with the introduction of better aerodynamics.The eccentric billionaire also continued to make movies that he knew the public would like. One of his films, The Outlaw, was banned at the time, but this publicity only helped make it a popular hit after it was eventually released. He was able to implement his ideas in a manner that responded to the consumer needs of the time.Hughes’ quote regarding airplane design highlights how passionate he was and how responsibly he took the implementation of his vision. He said,“If I have made a mistake in the design, then I’m the one who should pay for it. I certainly would not ask somebody else to fly a plane if I were afraid to do it myself.”FINAL THOUGHTSStrategic leadership is among the most effective and popular leadership strategies. But the framework is also difficult to master due to its complexity. Creating a strategy is never an easy task and when you are using it to guide an organization to the desired direction, the enormity of the different elements adds plenty of challenges on the leader’s path. The style is definitely one that requires plenty of planning, as well as wide-ranging knowledge of different aspects of the industry and the specific organization.But when the leader has the right qualities of knowledge, the ability to learn and communicate with others, the framework can be fruitful. Strategic leadership is good at providing a comprehensive roadmap to an organization and to help different parts within it work towards the same objective. Even though it is complex, it can provide a sense of direction and clarity for an organization.

Sophocles Oedipus The King - 847 Words

1. In Oedipus the King, the protagonist, Oedipus, played a major role in the plot of this play. Both his stubbornness and his swift responses are strong qualities that he possesses, and they will prove to be both an asset to him, and a liability that will eventually lead to his demise. Before being crowned as king of Thebes, Oedipus was hailed as savior of the city after he single handedly solved the riddle of the Sphinx, and freed the city from the plague. He would be called upon once again to save the city from the plague that had been placed upon them by Sphinx, but this time serving as king. Acting swiftly and proactively, Oedipus send his brother in-law, Creon, to the oracle in Delphi in the hopes of gaining some advice on how to get rid of the plague before the citizens of Thebes become overly worried. In this situation, his swiftness proved to be an asset to him. As the play continues, and the situation changes, his stubbornness and swiftness will become a major liability to him. After receiving news from Creon that the only way to rid the city of the plague was to expel the murderer of Laius (former King of Thebes), Oedipus vows to find the murderer and begins the process of questioning those around him. The first person he questions is Tiresias (the blind prophet), who after threatening him, tells Oedipus that he in fact is the murderer of Laius. Oedipus’s stubbornness gets the better of him and he refuses to believe what Tiresias has told him. He then accuses bothShow MoreRelatedOedipus The King By Sophocles848 Words   |  4 PagesOedipus the King, written by Sophocles, follows the tragic story of a king named Oedipus who goes from an all-powerful ruler to a hopeless blind peasant. Oedipus the King was written as a play and performed in front of an audience. Sophocles shows in Oedipus the King that one cannot escape the fate of the gods. Throughout the play Oedipus struggles to find a solution and change all the troubles in his life. The pla y observes the story of Oedipus who defies the gods and through the journey experiencesRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King884 Words   |  4 PagesKing of Thebes, owner of a family tree that identically resembles Medusa on a bad hair day, and the inspiration for a psychologically-riveting complex, Oedipus, tragic hero of Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, exposes troubling truths about the human condition and, acting as an exemplary precaution for the entirety of humanity, demonstrates how a self-destructive struggle between love, anger, and fate, conveyed through an unorthodox love affair between mother and son (Who gets custody in a divorce?),Read MoreSophocles Oedipus The King1714 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"ideal tragedy† is the play â€Å"Oedipus the King† written by Sophocles. In this play, Sophocles utilizes the concept of tragedy as well the theory of the importance of scenes of recognition and reversal to create a setting, tone, and mood throughout the pla y. Oedipus, the mythical king of Thebes, goes through a horrendous tragedy which includes moments of recognition and reversal. These moments are key to the fame and appreciation for the play, â€Å"Oedipus the King†. Sophocles’ use of Aristotle’s conceptsRead MoreOedipus The King By Sophocles950 Words   |  4 PagesThe people throughout Oedipus’ life trues very hard to allow him to escape his fate of killing his father and then marrying his mother. In the epic poem Oedipus the King, Sophocles tells the story of the tragic downfall of Oedipus. Although many people see the role of free will that brought upon Oedipus’ doom, no matter what choices were made throughout his life, his ultimate fate would always return. The choices made at the beginning of Oedipus’ life set him up to fulfill his prophecy. His parentsRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King992 Words   |  4 PagesThroughout tragedies in Greek literature, the hero always has one tragic flaw. In Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, Oedipus’ main flaw is his overactive hubris, which in turn clouds his overall judgment. This is evident in the Chorus’ first ode to the city of Thebes as they try to ask the Gods for the banishment of the plague. Their answer does not come from a deity, but from Oedipus himself as he enters the palace and says, â€Å"You have prayed; and you prayers shall be answered with help and release ifRead MoreOedipus the King by Sophocles1393 Words   |  6 Pages Sophocles’ play, Oedipus the King, has risen many questions concerning the main character and whether or not he acts on free will or if his future is predestined by the gods. I am going to test the theory that although Oedipus believes he is acting on his own free will, he is in fact a victim of the gods. I will analyze several different sources that discuss fate and human agency in Oedipus the King and then proceed to build my original argument on the archaic debate. There has been a great dealRead MoreOedipus The King By Sophocles904 Words   |  4 Pages In Sophocles play â€Å"Oedipus the King† a deadly plague has descended upon the kingdom of Thebes, and because of this plague a dark and iniquitous secret begins to unravel itself only to reveal a web of events connecting Oedipus and others as the culprits behind all the havoc ensued. No one is the sole source responsible for the unfortunate events that befall Thebes, as well as the royal family; In fact, those who unknowingly paved the path of destruction were themselves trying to prevent it fromRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King Essay1960 Words   |  8 Pages This would have been excellent advice for the main character in Sophocles drama, Oedipus the King. However, the drama was written as a result of Sophocles life and the influence of the humanistic culture in which he lived. Throughout Sophocles life, he gained military knowledge as the son of a wealthy armor manufacturer and received an excellent Greek education with emphasis on Homeric poetry (textbook). Furthe rmore, Sophocles was very involved in politics and served as a treasurer, a generalRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King871 Words   |  4 PagesThe plays written by Sophocles, â€Å"Oedipus the King â€Å"and â€Å"Antigone† are bodies of work displayed the meaning of what Aristotle defined as a tragedy. â€Å"Oedipus the King† is a story of a king trying to avoid the fate of his life that has been prophesized before his birth. In â€Å"Antigone† is story of a girl who devoted to her family, and regardless of the orders made the king Creon. In these stories the archetypes and hamartia of Antigone and Oedipus play a major role in the story. In â€Å"Antigone† the characterRead MoreOedipus The King, By Sophocles1407 Words   |  6 PagesWhen we think about a tragic play or protagonist, most people would think Shakespeare for his common theme of his plays to end with a tragedy. In Oedipus the King, written by Sophocles, tells the tale of the protagonist Oedipus. Throughout the play, Oedipus searched for his past to discover the reason why his kingdom is plagued with wilting crops and illnesses. In the end, he becomes a tragic protagonist after discovering his past was related to the previous king’s death. While the search progressed

International Business Morality Essay - 1133 Words

International Business Morality Societys general conception of the fundamental marketplace has dramatically changed within recent years. Throughout most of history, commerce has existed primarily (and, at times, solely) in the domestic realm, only on rare occasions interacting on an international level. However, with major technological advances occurring within the past century (and even more so, during the past decade) concerning both transportation (air travel, better seafaring and larger ships) and communication (telephones, the Internet), almost all business conducted by a mediocre to major firm operating from within a semi-industrialized to industrialized nation can be (and most often is) considered multinational. With the†¦show more content†¦Despite criticism from other nations, our multinational business policies should reflect what we hold true in our affairs at home. Two maxims of American ideology rebuke the opinion of When in Rome, do as the Romans do. First, no one, including businesses, should morally be permitted to freeload (simply put, freeloading is the practice of accepting advantages offered by a certain situation while not accepting its disadvantages) (EDB 531). When placed in a situation where freeloading is a viable option, many businesses are eager to take advantage of it due to its profitability (most often this is in the case of bribery). There is something essentially wrong with this practice in our society, however. Most modern societies function on a system of benefits and burdens. Each member of society is expected to accept both the benefits and the burdens adherent to their situation and actions. For example, when you steal money you are attempting to acquire a benefit without the adjunct burden (earning it). When such a person is caught doing such, they are almost certainly prosecuted and made to accept the burden (usually in the form of jail time or fines). When a business receives a bribe or a kickback, they are essentially accepting a b enefit of the laws against those practices while not suffering the burdens associated with those laws (EDB 531). The second idea which American morality supposes is that of inalienable human rights. Presently, it can beShow MoreRelatedInternational Business: Norms of Morality and Local Cultures1754 Words   |  8 Pages1. INTRODUCTION International Business is a business where all the activities pass through the other country’s borderline. This definition includes international trade and manufacturing abroad, industry’s service in a field like transportation, tourism, banking, advertisement, construction, retail trade, big trade and mass communication. There are two reasons to running the International Business, first is specialization between nations. In a relation with an advance or a certain power with allRead MoreCulture Issues in Developed Countries1538 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Overview - As the global economy becomes more of a reality, and as various developing countries increase the amount of business they do with developed countries, many cultural issues arise. Running a business is different in different countries. Even as globalization makes us citizens of a global village, we cannot lose the perspective that there are different beliefs and normative behaviors in different cultures some acceptable in country A, but not in country B; some even expected. Often, whenRead MoreRelativism, Multiculturalism, And Universal Norms866 Words   |  4 PagesAni Martirosyan Philosophy 305 Business Ethics Assignment #4 Chapter 8: Relativism, Multiculturalism, And Universal Norms: Their Role in Business Ethics The central thesis of Beauchamp’s argument is as follows: I argue that although a relativism of all moral standards is an untenable position, a lower-level relativism of moral judgment and multiculturalism are morally warranted. I conclude that there is a universal common morality, but that it allows for moral disagreement and legitimate differencesRead MoreRelativism, Multiculturalism, And Universal Norms866 Words   |  4 PagesAni Martirosyan Philosophy 305 Business Ethics Assignment #4 Chapter 8: Relativism, Multiculturalism, And Universal Norms: Their Role in Business Ethics The central thesis of Beauchamp’s argument is as follows: I argue that although a relativism of all moral standards is an untenable position, a lower-level relativism of moral judgment and multiculturalism are morally warranted. I conclude that there is a universal common morality, but that it allows for moral disagreement and legitimate differencesRead More International Business: The Importance of Ethics in Business1636 Words   |  7 PagesInternational Business The business world has always relied heavily on contractual agreements while conducting business. These contracts while written in ink, are set in stone. Once your business partner signs his/her name on the dotted line the pact has been sealed and nothing else needs to be said. But what happens when you take away the physical contractual element and everything is agreed upon through ones word? The world of business ethics is an old discipline in most parts of the worldRead MoreEthical Principles Of The Word Ethics1464 Words   |  6 PagesThe Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word ethics is commonly used interchangeably with morality ... and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group or individual (Deigh, 1995). Since we were kids and we began to realize what was around us, our parents and grandparents have taught us the basic knowledge of what is good and what is bad. It is indeed an inherent characteristic of all human being and grows from our desires toRead MoreMorality of Bribes1100 Words   |  5 PagesBribes and Morality Machiavelli (1882), in writing of cruelty and clemency asks the question of whether it is better to be loved or feared and asserts that both are best. Machiavelli (1882) justifies this conclusion by saying that people are fickle. They will pledge their lives when danger is distant and benefits are high, but desert those to whom they pledge their lives when danger is imminent. The person who places love above all else is in danger during times of crisis. Conversely, men areRead MoreAn Article On Morality And Foreign Policy889 Words   |  4 Pages ITS 365B, Section 3, 9/21/2015 George F. Kennan 1985/86 Morality and Foreign Policy. Foreign Affairs 64(2):205-218. George F. Kennan, author of the article Morality and Foreign Policy, asserts that, â€Å"Government is an agent, not a principal† (Kennan 206), their needs have no moral quality. Additionally, the U.S is often asked to take action on concerns such as, the annexation of Crimea, where many attempted to play to the U.S’s morality, but the fact is that helping Crimea would not have servedRead MoreEssay on Chapter 6 Business Ethics and Ethical Decision Making1278 Words   |  6 Pagesdecision by Moral Philosophies which refers to the specific principals or rules that people use to decide what is right or wrong (Ferrell, Fraedrich, Ferrell, Ninth Edition Business Ethics, p 153). The advantage to this decision is she did what she felt was morally acceptable, the disadvantage is she does not have their business and she has no reason to believe they would not pay the loan back and she would have made money for the bank if she accepted and approved the loan application. Althou gh sheRead MoreThe Ethics Of Confucian Business Ethics1172 Words   |  5 PagesEDMP: An Analysis in Support of Confucian Business Ethics in Harmony of the Business Environment (160)Issue: The one question brought forth by Lagan (2006) is the conflict between harmony in the business environment and the competition of capitalistic markets in the ethical debate on the efficacy of Confucian business ethics. Lagan’s (2006) case study effectively defines the overarching harmony of universal mandates defined by Confucius, which argued against the pro-capitalist interpretations

College Admission Essay - Overview

College Admission Essay - Overview Keep reading to find out more about how PrepScholar can help you accomplish your educational dreams. A lot of people never learn to compose essays, and they miss out on opportunities as an outcome. Analyze your life and you will probably discover a lot of interesting things to tell about. You will need to present yourself in a sense that will grab attention. Although each aspect of your college application is crucial, a strong college admission essay is just one of the most significant elements of the application. College application essay, is a significant aspect as it aids the panel, pick the best students that show the proper type of motivation, for placement into a few of their programs. Do not allow the admissions application fee block you from applying! Thus, please read these recommendations before working on your own application if you would like to do your very best. Essay prompts are intentionally open-ended, and there are nume rous approaches to begin selecting a topic. Nevertheless, if you would like your paper to be effective, our advice is to use the standard format comprising introduction, body paragraphs and conclusion. When you locate a topic you want, sit down and write for one hour or so. To accomplish this, brainstorm on topics which you are passionate about. When choosing the most suitable college essay topics, students ought to be keen to center on the principal ideas they're attempting to pass in their essay. In a nutshell, learning how to compose essays properly is something which you cannot avoid. Fortunately, learning how to compose essays is really rather simple as long as you are able to stay calm and break the work down so you can tackle it step-by-step. The Death of College Admission Essay Admissions staff members want to understand the way your presence will produce the college a better place. Our Admission and Financial Aid officers are here in order to work with you personally to think about every kind of aid for which you might be eligible. Writing the college application essay can be among the most daunting sections of applying to college. Admissions officers don't expect you to be perfect, and thus don't make your essay unbelievable by attempti ng to pretend that you're. What You Must Know About College Admission Essay At the close of the day, colleges wish to accept someone who's going to graduate, be prosperous in the world and have the university related to that success. Wow students get in their dream schools year in, year out. In most instances, the admission essay is the exact first thing the admissions board take a peek at. A college application essay is a substantial means of letting the panel learn more concerning the student. What the In-Crowd Won't Tell You About College Admission Essay There's an automated investment plan provided with the PA 529 plan, and there's absolutely no restriction regarding how many times you contribute to the automated investment program. Then ask yourself whether you want to compose a conclusion tying everything together. Apparently, a fraud essays help service doesn't want you to have a chance to reach them after being robbed. The college application essay isn't the perfect forum to confess all your previous crimes, failures, and misdeeds. So for those who have an essay assigned that you require help with, you can purchase essay online cheap from us. Your essay is a special reflection of who you are as an individual. Admission essay is just one of the most significant academic papers in your life as it determines whether you are going to be in a position to go into the college you need or not. Admission essays writing is an arduous talent. After you receive a work done from us you will return again if you need assistance with another one of your essays. If you are searching for top essay writing companies, try out the mentioned above. There's not any reason to rush your essay. There are a number of essay writing services that think they're the very best, and thus don't be cheated and check the legitimate list of the very best. Secondly, you're likely to do fine as you learn how to compose an effective essay. Bridget's essay is extremely strong, but there continue to be a couple little things that could be made better. Stephen's essay is quite effective. Most Noticeable College Admission Essay A superb college essay isn't just persuasive, it's a piece which highlights the suitable attitude to the college, the personal aspirations and the vision the student has once they get in the school. Many college applicants make the error of attempting to incorporate all their accomplishments and activities in their application essays. The admissions teams are searching for authenticity and caliber of thinking. Don't offer an impression that you've got minimal understanding about the college you're applying to.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)

Table of Contents Introduction Pathogen involved The defense-host disease Infection and transmission Clinical manifestations Diagnosis and control References Introduction Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a communicable disease that is caused by the virus SARS corona virus (SARS-CoV) (Coronavirus Research and SARS, 2004) The disease started in South China in early 2002. During the outbreak, mortality was highly dependent on age. Older people succumbed to the disease more than younger people did. The disease has not yet been eliminated from the human population. Scientists claim that it exists in natural reservoirs and may return to the human population any time.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Pathogen involved SARS is caused by a virus in the coronavirus family known as SARS corona virus (SARS-CoV) (Coronavirus Research and SARS, 2004). The defense-host disease Both adaptive and innate immune responses are involved in SARS infections. However, adaptive responses are more involved because replication of the virus outpaces innate immune responses (Overview of the SARS, 2004). Both responses are involved because their interaction is very important. Adaptive responses cannot be elicited without innate responses. After infection, the immune system uses nonspecific immune defenses to contain the spread of the virus in the body. In addition, it uses antigen specific immune responses to fight the virus. The main aim of these immune responses is to eradicate both host cells and virus particles involved. Infection and transmission SARS is transmitted through person-to person contact (Overview of the SARS, 2004). Transmission involves exposure of individuals to infectious droplets from infected people. In addition, it is transmitted through direct physical contact with body fluids of infected individuals (â⠂¬ËœOverview of the SARS Epidemic’, 2004). Infectious agents are transmitted when the mucous membrane of the nose, eyes or mouth comes into direct contact with infected respiratory droplets or fomites. Particles of the virus contained in transmitted respiratory droplets are the main cause of the disease. The particles attack epithelial cells and the lining of the mucosal membrane (‘The public health response to SARS’ 2004). With the aid of the synthetic mechanisms of host cells, the virus cells replicate and release new virus particles that attack other cells. Clinical manifestations The disease manifests itself through symptoms and signs that are typical to flu-like infections. These symptoms include chills, muscle and body aches, fever, and in some cases, diarrhea (The public health response to SARS 2004). After a week of infection, symptoms include dry cough, fever of 38 degree Celsius, and shortness of breath. If the disease is not diagnosed and treated early enough, it may progress to pneumonia or respiratory failure. In severe cases, it progresses to death.Advertising Looking for assessment on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Diagnosis and control Diagnosis of SARS involves different types of tests. These tests include blood clotting tests, complete blood count (CBC), chest X-ray or chest CT scan, and blood chemistry tests (Denison, 2004). These tests take time to give results. However, health professionals use other tests that give quick results. These tests include antibody tests, direct isolation of the virus, and rapid polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the virus (Coronavirus Research and SARS, 2004). These tests have limitations because they cannot identify the virus during the first week of infection when the disease is most critical. Control of SARS involves avoiding contact with infected people, avoiding travel to areas with outbreaks, and cleaning hand s with alcohol-based disinfectants (Denison, 2004). In addition, avoiding sharing things such as utensils and food, wearing masks and goggles are also effective control methods (‘The public health response to SARS’ 2004). It is also advisable to close one’s mouth and nose when sneezing to avoid transmitting the virus to others in case one is infected. References ‘Coronavirus Research and SARS‘ 2004, in S Knobler, A Mahmoud, S Lemon, A Mack, L Sivitz, and K  Oberholtzer (eds.), Learning from SARS: Preparing for the Next Disease Outbreak, National Academies Press, Washington, pp. 19-22. Web. Denison, M 2004, ‘Coronavirus Research: Keys to Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention of SARS‘, in S Knobler, A Mahmoud, S Lemon, A Mack, L Sivitz, and K  Oberholtzer (eds.), Learning from SARS: Preparing for the Next Disease Outbreak, National Academies Press, Washington, pp. 149 – 157. Web. ‘Overview of the SARS Epidemic‘, 2004, i n S Knobler, A Mahmoud, S Lemon, A Mack, L Sivitz, and K  Oberholtzer (eds.), Learning from SARS: Preparing for the Next Disease Outbreak, National Academies Press, Washington, pp. 2-13. Web. ‘The public health response to SARS‘ 2004, in S Knobler, A Mahmoud, S Lemon, A Mack, L Sivitz, and K  Oberholtzer (eds.), Learning from SARS: Preparing for the Next Disease Outbreak, National Academies Press, Washington, pp. 13-19. Web.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This assessment on Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) was written and submitted by user Darryl S. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Empowerment Essays

Empowerment Essays Empowerment Essay Empowerment Essay There have been countless studies on how to improve the teaching profession. But what do educators themselves think What do they say they need to excel in their jobs And what obstacles do they commonly face . Teachers want to work in schools where they can thrive, and theyâ„ ¢re not going to thrive and extend themselves if they donâ„ ¢t feel comfortable with their colleagues and the management. | | It comes down to leaders creating a clear and compelling vision around learning and really going to bat for teachers. They have to create a safe environment for teachers†an environment where teachers feel they can make decisions that matter in both their classrooms and their institute. More broadly, effective leaders create structures in which itâ„ ¢s clear that teachers have a certain authority. In some states, according to our surveys, we have only a third of teachers agreeing that they are centrally involved in school decision-making. What they want from leaders is to have processes where they can really understand their role in learning and can really respond to situations and engage in ways that make sense to them. The pressures on principals today are overwhelming. Principals must deal with federal and state accountability systems, assessments, parents and community, and in the end, they are ultimately accountable for performance. It is difficult to let go and empower others when you know it is your neck on the line for results. But of course, in the end, it is that team effort and drawing the best from staff that will generate improved performance. Thatâ„ ¢s just a tough leap. And itâ„ ¢s even tougher for principals if they donâ„ ¢t have supportive environments, either. Many were not prepared to serve as the visionary, instructional leaders we now expect. They receive little induction and professional development of their own, and are often not empowered to make decisions at their school that they believe are necessary due to local, state, and federal policy. This is why we have started to ask principals specific questions about their support and work environment on the survey. To better understand how to empower teachers we need to understand how to empower and support strong school leaders. Are there things that teachers themselves can do to improve their career satisfaction Thatâ„ ¢s a great question, and itâ„ ¢s something weâ„ ¢ve had to think about a lot. I mean, can you have teacher empowerment when the school leadership isnâ„ ¢t necessarily willing to create safe structures and engage teachers as partners I think the answer is yes, but itâ„ ¢s not easy. I think teachers in that situation need to find other outlets to be advocates for themselves, for their profession, and for their students. Between opportunities at the state and district levels, and working with parents and other community members, I think there are ways teachers can be engaged in their work and take on more active roles even when not encouraged internally to do so. The other thing weâ„ ¢ve seen is teachers working with colleagues on their own to start creating the kind of environments they want in their schools. They create professional learning communities, finding time to collaborate. They seek out their own professional development opportunities and advocate for themselves to be able to go and learn, so they can bring that knowledge back to their colleagues. But again, this takes a lot of care and commitment†and time. Itâ„ ¢s hard for teachers to sustain over the long haul if they arenâ„ ¢t given support from leadership. What changes do you see in the teacher profession in the years ahead Schools and districts are already starting to look at recruitment and retention in very different ways. For a number of reasons, for a long time teaching has been viewed as a life-long career. We had this expectation that teachers would kind of come in on day one and have their classroom and then 30 years later theyâ„ ¢d be doing the same thing. But now you have younger people†the Gen-X and Gen-Y folks†who are looking at different ways of engaging in teaching and serving schools. The perception among many elite students who are interested in teaching is that itâ„ ¢s less of a career and more of a short-term way to gain experience and engage in meaningful work. I think this is just reality, and schools are starting to acknowledge this and figure out how to leverage the staff diversity it creates†and this involves using teachers differently. There are still going to be a lot of amazingly accomplished teachers who want to make education their lives. The important question is going to be, how can we design schools to give these teachers the flexibility and leadership capacity to mentor and get the best out of younger teachers who are maybe only planning on being in the profession for two or three years We need to draw upon our best teachers to ensure that these short-term educators are the best they can be and that they are really hitting on all cylinders while they are in the profession. We need to find new ways to identify these core, accomplished teachers and to give them new avenues to spread their expertise†through technology, for example. We need to create new career-advancement opportunities for them, give them greater decision-making authority and responsibility, and allow them to be successful in their work. So I think weâ„ ¢re going to see a greater diversification of roles for teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education 20 (2004) 277â€Å"289 Influence of teacher empowerment on teachersâ„ ¢ organizational commitment, professional commitment and organizational citizenship behavior in schools Ronit Boglera,*, Anit Somechb aDepartment of Education and Psychology, The Open University of Israel, P.O. Box 39328, 16 Klausner Street, Tel Aviv 61392, Israel b Faculty of Education, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa 31905, Israel Abstract The present study focuses on the relationship between teacher empowerment and teachersâ„ ¢ organizational commitment, professional commitment (PC) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). It examines which subscales of teacher empowerment can best predict these outcomes. The data were collected through a questionnaire returned by a sample of 983 teachers in Israeli middle and high schools. Pearson correlations and multiple regression analyses indicated that teachersâ„ ¢ perceptions of their level of empowerment are significantly related to their feelings of commitment to the organization and to the profession, and to their OCBs. Among the six subscales of empowerment, professional growth, status and self-efficacy were significant predictors of organizational and PC, while decisionmaking, self-efficacy, and status were significant predictors of OCB. Practical implications of the study are discussed in relation to teachers, principals and policy-makers. r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. During the past decade, teacher empowerment has received a great deal of attention from researchers who studied its relationship to various organizational outcomes. In their extensive literature review, Sweetland and Hoy (2000) state that though a thorough examination has been conducted to study the relationship between teacher empowerment and various organizational and personal characteristics, [t]he results are confusingâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (p. 710). The current study aims to examine teacher empowerment in relation to outcomes that reflect the behavior of teachers in school. These outcomes†teachersâ„ ¢ organizational commitment (OC), professional commitment (PC), and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)†are key factors in their performance in a school setting (Howell Dorfman, 1986; Diefendorff, Brown, Kamin, Lord, 2002). 1. Theoretical framework 1.1. Teacher empowerment Research on teacher empowerment began to appear in the literature in the late 1980s (Edwards, ARTICLE IN PRESS *Corresponding author. Tel.: +972-3-6460617; fax: +972-3- 6465468. E-mail addresses: [emailprotected] (R. Bogler), [emailprotected] (A. Somech). 0742-051X/$ see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2004.02.003 Green, Lyons, 2002). Empowerment, as perceived by Short, Greer and Melvin (1994) is defined as a process whereby school participants develop the competence to take charge of their own growth and resolve their own problemsâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (p. 38). It is individualsâ„ ¢ belief that they have the skills and knowledge to improve a situation in which they operate. In their national study on empowerment of teacher leaders, Rinehart and Short (1991) found that reading recovery teacher leaders were more highly empowered than reading recovery teachers or classroom teachers. This finding was explained as a result of reading recovery teacher leadersâ„ ¢ having more opportunities to make decisions and grow professionally, having control over daily schedules and feeling a high level of teaching competency. According to Maeroff (1988), teacher empowerment consists of improved status, increased knowledge and access to decisionmaking. Short and Rinehart (1992) identify six dimensions of teacher empowerment: decisionmaking, professional growth, status, self-efficacy, autonomy and impact. In a study devoted to the concept of teacher empowerment, Short (1994a) describes the six dimensions in detail. Decisionmaking refers to teachersâ„ ¢ participation in critical decisions that directly affect their work, involving issues related to budgets, teacher selection, scheduling, and curriculum. To be effective, teachersâ„ ¢ participation in decision-making must be genuine, and the teachers need to be confident that their decisions actually impact real outcomes. Professional growth refers to the teachersâ„ ¢ perception that the school provides them opportunities to grow and develop professionally, to continue to learn, and to expand their skills during their work in school. Status refers to the professional respect and admiration that the teachers perceive that they earn from colleagues. Respect is also granted for the knowledge and expertise that the teachers demonstrate, resulting in support of their actions from others. Self-efficacy refers to the teachersâ„ ¢ perception that they are equipped with the skills and ability to help students learn, and are competent to develop curricula for students. The feeling of mastery, in both knowledge and practice, that results in accomplishing desired outcomes is critical in the teachersâ„ ¢ sense of selfefficacy. Autonomy refers to the teachersâ„ ¢ feeling that they have control over various aspects of their working life, including scheduling, curriculum development, selection of textbooks and planning instruction. This type of control enables teachers to feel free to make decisions related to their educational milieu. Impact refers to the teachersâ„ ¢ perception that they can affect and influence school life. Teacher empowerment has been studied in relation to job satisfaction (Rinehart Short, 1994), participation in decision-making (Gruber Trickett, 1987; White, 1992), commitment (Wu Short, 1996), conflict (Johnson Short, 1998; Rinehart, Short, Johnson, 1997; Short, 1994b), instructional practice and student academic achievements (Marks Louis, 1997; Smylie, 1994), and principal leadership (Blas!e Blas!e, 1996; Johnson Short, 1998; Kirby Colbert, 1994; Rinehart, Short, Short, Eckley, 1998). Previous research (Sweetland Hoy, 2000), supports four assumptions regarding teacher empowerment: first, teacher empowerment is most effective when it is oriented to increase teacher professionalism; second, empowerment has at least two dimensions: organizational and classroom; third, empowering teachers has its greatest impact on student achievement when the emphasis is on the core technology of teaching and learning in schools; fourth, to be effective, teacher empowerment needs to be authentic (pp. 710â€Å"711). Teacher empowerment is, therefore, perceived as a crucial factor that affects school effectiveness (Wall Rinehart, 1998). In the present study, we chose three variables that the literature found as related to school effectiveness: organizational commitment, PC and OCB. Teachersâ„ ¢ commitment to the organization†the school†has been found to predict school effectiveness (Howell Dorfman, 1986; Rosenholtz, 1991). A positive relationship has been found between organizational commitment and regular employee attendance, and an inverse relationship between organizational commitment and turnover intention (Balfour Wechsler, 1996; Porter, Steers, Mowday, Boulian, 1974). Employees who are highly committed to both the profession and the organization were found to perform better than the less committed ARTICLE IN PRESS 278 R. Bogler, A. Somech / Teaching and Teacher Education 20 (2004) 277â€Å"289 ones, a behavior which results in improved overall effectiveness of the organization (Aranya Ferris, 1984). Teachersâ„ ¢ PC has been found to be critical to good instruction (Firestone Pennell, 1993). Finally, the impact of OCB on the school organization is dramaticâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢; it contributes to the overall effectiveness of the school and reduces the management component of the administratorâ„ ¢s roleâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (DiPaola Tschannen-Moran, 2001, p. 434). OCB promotes organizational performance because it presents effective measures to manage the interdependencies between members of a work group, and consequently increases the outcomes achieved by the collective (Organ, 1990, Smith, Organ, Near, 1983). This study aims to investigate the relationship between teacher empowerment and these three outcomes: teachersâ„ ¢ organizational and PC and their OCB. More specifically, we attempt to determine which subscales of teacher empowerment can best predict these outcomes. 1.2. The relationship between teachersâ„ ¢ empowerment and their organizational and PC Organizational commitment, as defined by Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979), is the relative strength of an individualâ„ ¢s identification with and involvement in a particular organizationâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (p. 226). This concept is based on three factors: the acceptance of the organizationâ„ ¢s goals and values (identification), the willingness to invest effort on behalf of the organization (involvement), and the importance attached to keeping up the membership in the organization (loyalty). These characteristics imply that the members of the organization wish to be active players in the organization, have an impact on what is going on in it, feel that they have high status within it, and are ready to contribute beyond what is expected of them. This is especially true when the leaders of the organization are perceived as adopting consultative or participative leadership behavior, where shared decision-making is prevalent (Yousef, 2000). In this case, when leaders are perceived as participative, employees feel more committed to the organization, express higher levels of job satisfaction, and their performance is high. Among the empowerment subscales, the literature refers to a number of dimensions that relate to organizational commitment. In a number of studies (reviewed by Firestone Pennell, 1993), teachersâ„ ¢ autonomy in making classroom decisions, their participation in school-wide decisionmaking, and their opportunities to learn were among the organizational conditions that showed a strong association with teacher commitment to the organization. A positive relationship was also found between organizational commitment and job involvement (Blau and Boal, 1989). PC is the degree to which a personâ„ ¢s work performance affects his self-esteemâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Lodahl Kejner, 1965, p. 25). For a person who is professionally committed, work is a vital part of life. This means that both the work itself and the co-workers are very meaningful to the employee, in addition to the importance s/he attaches to the organization as a whole. Active participation in decision-making increases involvement and PC, which result in a higher level of acceptance and satisfaction. Evers (1990) suggested that teachersâ„ ¢ successful participation in decision-making could be explained by the feeling of ownership that comes from initiating ideas rather than responding to othersâ„ ¢ proposals. Gaziel and Weiss (1990) claimed that teachersâ„ ¢ participation, based on establishing a strong voice in decisions and policies, was a characteristic of professional orientationâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢, and fostered better working relations among staff members. With regard to self-efficacy, studies have shown that teachers with a greater sense of efficacy are more enthusiastic about teaching (Guskey, 1984), report a higher level of commitment to teaching (Coladarci, 1992; Evans Tribble, 1986), and are more likely to remain in teaching (Glickman Tamashiro, 1982). Wu and Short (1996), who studied the relationship between teacher empowerment and teacher job commitment and job satisfaction, found that among the six subscales that compose the teacher empowerment scale (SPES), professional growth, self-efficacy and status were significant predictors of job commitment. We were interested to see whether similar results would be found in this study with regard to other outcomes, such as organizational commitment and OCB. ARTICLE IN PRESS R. Bogler, A. Somech / Teaching and Teacher Education 20 (2004) 277â€Å"289 279 1.3. The relationship between teacher empowerment and OCB The concept of OCB, derived from Katzâ„ ¢s (1964) conception of extra-role behavior, was first introduced by Organ (1977) who defined it as behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organizationâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Organ, 1988, p. 4). Researchers have recognized the significant impact of OCB on the success of an organization (e.g., Chen, Hui, Sego, 1998; Karambayya, 1989). As several scholars have noted (e.g., George, 1996; Katz Kahn, 1966; Organ Konovsky, 1989), OCBs are important to the organization because through formal job descriptions, organizations cannot anticipate the whole range of behaviors needed for the achievement of organizational goals (Vanyperen, van den Berg, Willering, 1999). OCB provides the organization with additional resources and eliminates the need for expensive formal mechanisms otherwise crucial to successful restructuring processes. Today, as schools move into a new era of reorganization (Blas!e Blas!e, 1996; Clement Vandenberghe, 2000; Reitzug, 1994; Wall Rinehart, 1998), performancedefined as prescribed by task roles†is necessary but not sufficient for predicting school effectiveness. Therefore, schools will have to be more dependent on teachers who are willing to exert considerable effort beyond formal job requirements, namely, to engage in OCB. (Somech Drach-Zahavy, 2000). OCB refers to various dimensions such as altruism, conscientiousness (also termed generalized complianceâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢), sportsmanship, courtesy, and civic virtue (Organ, 1988); obedience, loyalty, and various types of participation (Van Dyne, Graham, Dienesch, 1994); and helping and voice (Stamper Van Dyne, 2001; Van Dyne LePine, 1998). The notion of behaviors directed towards the individual and the organization was first introduced by Williams and Anderson (1991), and in the educational setting, it corresponds to behaviors directed towards students, teacher colleagues, and to the whole school. OCBs operate indirectly; they influence the social and psychological environment of organizations, which in turn influence the technical core (Diefendorff et al., 2002). OCB affects the technical core since it involves extra role behaviors of some teachers toward students and teachers. These teachers help students with class materials, acquire expertise in new areas that contribute to their work, prepare special assignments for higher- or lower-level students, volunteer for school committees, set up learning programs for substitute teachers, help absent colleagues by assigning learning tasks to their classes, and work collaboratively with others. All these OCBs relate to the technical core of the organization. However, in the case of teachers who exhibit OCBs, they also help to achieve organization goals. This is reflected through extra role behaviors toward the organization, expressed by teachers organizing social activities for the school, volunteering for roles and tasks that are not part of their jobs, providing innovative suggestions to improve the school and by organizing joint activities with parents above the norm. Research on OCB in schools is very limited (DiPaola Tschannen-Moran, 2001). In this study, we have adopted the concept of OCB as investigated in educational settings. Based on Zimmerman and Rappaport (1988) who view the concept of empowerment as a sense of civic dutyâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ involving democratic participation and affecting community life and social issues (p. 136), one can expect to find a relationship between empowerment and OCB. Participation in decision-making, one of the characteristics of teacher empowerment, has been found to lead to engagement in OCB in various contexts (Porter, Lawler, Hackman, 1996). Self-efficacy has been found to be related to OCB toward the team and the organization, but not related to the student (Somech Drach-Zahavy, 2000). To date, limited research has been conducted on the relationship between teachersâ„ ¢ commitment to the organization, their PC, OCB, and teacher empowerment. Since the current literature cannot lead to definite hypotheses regarding the relationship between the subscales of teacher empowerment and school outcomes, it is our goal to determine which subscales best predict the three outcomes: teachersâ„ ¢ organizational commitment, ARTICLE IN PRESS 280 R. Bogler, A. Somech / Teaching and Teacher Education 20 (2004) 277â€Å"289 PC and OCB. The findings of the study may have important implications for teachers and principals, and consequently for the entire school. 2. Method 2.1. Participants The teachers in this study were sampled from a random sample of schools located in the northern and central parts of Israel. The sample consisted of 983 teachers in 25 middle schools (grades 7â€Å"9) and 27 high schools (grades 10â€Å"12). Although it was not possible to reach a random sample of all schools in Israel, care was taken to select urban, suburban and rural schools from diverse populations that represent the composition of teachers in Israel with regard to gender and religion, age and education. Seventy-two percent were women; 73 percent Jewish and the rest Arab. Of the Jewish teachers, 78 percent were female, and of the Arab teachers, almost half (46 percent) were male. The average age was 38.5, with an average of 10 years of seniority in the current school, and 13.5 years of seniority as teachers. Sixty-four percent had a Bachelorâ„ ¢s degree, 26 percent had a Masterâ„ ¢s degree and 10 percent had a professionalâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ degree (equivalent to a junior college diploma, with teaching credentials). These demographic characteristics were similar to those found in comparable studies on teachers in Israel (Rosenblatt, 2001; Somech Drach-Zahavy, 2000). 2.2. Research instrument A quantitative questionnaire, combining four Likert scales measuring OC, PC, OCB and teacher empowerment, was mailed in 2001 to teachers in 52 middle and high schools. The respondents were asked to refer to their current school, and to answer a range of questions about their feelings of empowerment, their commitment to the school and the profession, and their OCB in school. Teacher empowerment was measured using the School Participant Empowerment Scale (SPES) (Short Rinehart, 1992). The SPES measures teachersâ„ ¢ overall perception of empowerment. It is a 38-item instrument on a 5-point scale (scored from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree). Factor analysis of the SPES revealed six dimensions at the basis of the construct. The dimensions and their internal consistency estimates (coefficient alphas) are: involvement in decision-making (0.89); opportunities for professional growth (0.83); status (0.86); self-efficacy (0.84); autonomy (0.81); and impact (0.82). The overall scale has reliability of 0.94 and the same reliability level of alpha was found in the current study. Examples of items are: I make decision about the implementation of new programs in the schoolâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (decisionmaking), I am treated as a professionalâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (professional growth), I believe that I have earned respectâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (status), I believe that I am empowering studentsâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (self-efficacy), I have the freedom to make decisions on what is taughtâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (autonomy), and I believe that I have an impactâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (impact). Organizational commitment was measured using Mowday et al.â„ ¢s (1979) Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ). This 15-item instrument measures affective rather than normative or continuance commitment, by asking the respondents to refer to their identification with and involvement in a particular organization. Examples of items are: I tell my friends that this school is a great school to work forâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ and I feel very little loyalty to this schoolâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (reverse coded). A 7-point scale (scored from 1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree) was used. Scores on the 15 items were averaged to yield a summary score representing organizational commitment. The internal reliability estimates for the OCQ scores were strong across Mowday et al.â„ ¢s (1979) six samples (ranging from 0.82 to 0.93) and resulted in a single-factor solution. In the current study, the reliability level of alpha was 0.87. Professional commitment was measured using Lodahl and Kejnerâ„ ¢s (1965) 20-item scale, specifically adjusted to the educational setting. This instrument focuses on teachersâ„ ¢ job involvement and on the importance of work to them in general. Examples of items are: I live my job as a teacher 24 h a dayâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ and Most things in my life are more important than my workâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (reverse coded). A 5- point scale (scored from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree), was used. Scores on the 20 ARTICLE IN PRESS R. Bogler, A. Somech / Teaching and Teacher Education 20 (2004) 277â€Å"289 281 items were averaged to yield a summary score representing PC. The reliability level of alpha in this study was 0.87. Organizational citizenship behavior was measured using a 23-item scale developed and validated in the school context (Somech Drach- Zahavy, 2000). This instrument refers to discretionary behaviors that go beyond existing role expectations and are directed toward the individual, the group, or the organization as a unit. The OCB scale consists of three subscales: (a) eight items relate to students (e.g., I stay after school hours to help students with materials covered in classâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢), with a reliability level of alpha of 0.80; (b) seven items relate to colleagues (e.g., I help an absent colleague by assigning learning tasks to the classâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢), with a reliability level of alpha of 0.77; and (c) eight items relate to the school as a unit (e.g., I make innovative suggestions to improve the schoolâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢), with a reliability level of alpha of 0.87. A 5-point scale (scored from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree), was used. Scores on the 23 items were averaged to yield a summary score representing OCB. The reliability level of alpha in the current study was 0.92. 3. Results Preliminary analyses of t-tests were performed to determine whether there were gender and type of school (secondary/high schools) differences with regard to the research variables (i.e., teacher empowerment, organizational commitment, PC and OCB). The results revealed no significant differences (p > 0:05). In addition, the correlations between the other demographic variables (education and length of tenure) and the research variables were marginal (below 0.09); hence, we treated the participants as one group. Means, standard deviations and intercorrelations for the research variables are shown in Table 1. An examination of the means of the subscales of the SPES revealed that the subscales that received the highest scores were status (M ? 4:1), professional growth (M ? 3:8), impact (M ? 3:7) and self-efficacy (M ? 3:7). The lowest average score was ascribed to decision-making (M ? 3:1). The Pearson correlation matrix revealed that all six subscales were significantly (po0:0001) and positively correlated with organizational commitment (ranging from 0.34 to 0.65), PC (ranging from 0.37 to 0.68) and OCB (ranging from 0.21 to 0.61). The more the teachers perceived themselves as practicing any of the teacher empowerment components, the more they expressed commitment towards the organization, the profession, and OCBs. In addition, the correlation between organizational commitment and PC was positive and significant (r ? 0:68). Multiple regression analysis was employed to identify which empowerment dimensions best ARTICLE IN PRESS Table 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations Variable Mean s.d. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. Decision-making1 3.1 0.73 0.54 0.34 0.60 0.63 0.63 0.34 0.41 0.61 2. Professional growth1 3.8 0.69 0.72 0.74 0.55 0.73 0.65 0.60 0.36 3. Statusa 4.1 0.62 0.62 0.44 0.67 0.58 0.51 0.21 4. Self-efficacya 3.7 0.65 0.56 0.77 0.53 0.58 0.50 5. Autonomya 3.3 0.84 0.61 0.37 0.37 0.39 6. Impacta 3.7 0.72 0.50 0.54 0.44 7. OCb 4.3 0.83 0.68 0.41 8. PCa 3.4 0.59 0.20 9. OCBc 3.1 0.72 Variables 1â€Å"6 are subscales of teacher empowermentâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢. All correlations are statistically significant, po0:0001: a Rating scale: 1=Strongly disagree; 5=Strongly agree b Rating scale: 1=Strongly disagree; 7=Strongly agree c Rating scale: 1=Very seldom; 5=Very often 282 R. Bogler, A. Somech / Teaching and Teacher Education 20 (2004) 277â€Å"289 predict teachersâ„ ¢ organizational commitment, PC and OCB (see Tables 2â€Å"4). Tables 2â€Å"4 show the results of the multiple regression analysis for each of the outcomes: organizational commitment, PC and OCB, respectively. For each regression, all six components of teacher empowerment were included in the equation. Table 2 shows that three predictor variables† professional growth, status, and selfefficacy† were statistically significant predictors of organizational commitment and explained 44 percent of its variance (F?3674? ? 173:65; po0:0001). Results of the second multiple regression analysis (Table 3) indicate that the same three predictors†self-efficacy, professional growth, and status†were statistically significant predictors of PC and explained 40 percent of its variance (F?3665? ? 148:1; po0:0001). Results of the third multiple regression analysis (Table 4) indicate that three predictors†decision-making, self-efficacy, and status†were statistically significant predictors of OCB and also explained 40 percent of its variance (F?3640? ? 144:23; po0:0001). An evaluation of the assumptions of each of the three regression models yielded no violations of assumptions of linearity, normality, and homoscedasticity of residuals. 4. Discussion The findings regarding the means of the six dimensions of teacher empowerment appear to be consistent with previous studies. Wall and Rinehart (1998), for example, found that the most frequent dimensions of empowerment, amongst high school teachers, were in descending order: status (M ? 4:14; s.d.=0.51), self-efficacy, impact, professional growth, autonomy and decisionmaking (M ? 2:94; s.d.=0.72). In the present study, we found very similar results: status (M ? 4:10; s.d.=0.62), professional growth, impact, self-efficacy, autonomy and decision-making (M ? 3:06; s.d.=0.73). These findings imply that teachers feel that they are respected (status), have opportunities for professional growth, are effective at their job (impact) and perform well (selfefficacy). Yet, in both the American sample and in our population, teachers did not feel that they were involved in the process of decision-making. We can speculate that either teachers are not aware of their involvement, or that they really ARTICLE IN PRESS Table 2 Regression coefficients and F-test value for organizational commitment Variable B SE b F R2 Professional growth 0.62 0.07 0.44___ 87.69 0.44 Status 0.36 0.07 0.22___ (6,671, po0:0001) Self-efficacy 0.23 0.07 0.15 Autonomy 0.01 0.05 0.01 Decision making 0.03 0.06 0.02 Impact 0.12 0.07 0.09 Constant 0.63 0.20 ___po0:0001: Table 3 Regression coefficients and F-test value for professional commitment Variable B SE b F R2 Self-efficacy 0.25 0.05 0.29___ 75.47 0.41 Professional growth 0.19 0.05 0.23___ (6,662, po:0001) Status 0.11 0.04 0.12_ Autonomy 0.05 0.03 0.07 Decision making 0.06 0.04 0.08 Impact 0.05 0.04 0.06 Constant 1.08 0.12 _po0:01; ___po0:0001: Table 4 Regression coefficients and F-test value for organizational citizenship behavior Variable B SE b F R2 Decision-making 0.46 0.04 0.46___ 71.88 0.40 Self-efficacy 0.39 0.06 0.35___ (6,637, po:0001) Status 0.17 0.05 0.14___ Autonomy 0.002 0.04 0.002 Impact 0.003 0.06 0.003 Professional growth 0.04 0.06 0.03 Constant 1.04 0.16 ___po0:0001: R. Bogler, A. Somech / Teaching and Teacher Education 20 (2004) 277â€Å"289 283 were not given the opportunity to participate in various forms of school decision-making. (Wall Rinehart, 1998 suggest these considerations in their discussion about the role of the school councils in the schools they sampled). The results of the present study showed that two of the six subscales, self-efficacy and status, significantly predicted all three outcomes: organizational commitment, PC and OCB. Another subscale, professional growth, predicted two of the outcomes: organizational and PC. Participation in decision-making predicted OCB. The results regarding the criterion variable, organizational commitment, correspond with earlier findings that investigated the SPES subscales (Wu Short, 1996). In their study, Wu and Short found that professional growth, self-efficacy and status predicted organizational commitment and explained 45 per cent of its variance. These same subscales were found to explain 44 per cent of the variance of organizational commitment in the present study. Self-efficacy is oneâ„ ¢s perception of oneâ„ ¢s competence and ability to act. In educational settings, it was found that when teachers believe that they can make a difference with their students, they do (Gibson Dembo, 1984). The importance of selfefficacy as a predictor of all three outcomes can be understood if we relate to the original concept of self-efficacy developed by Bandura (1977). According to Bandura, self-efficacy is based on two dimensions that he labeled outcome expectancyâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ and efficacy expectancyâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (p. 79). Outcome expectancyâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ implies that an individual estimates that a given behavior will result in certain outcomes. Efficacy expectationsâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ refer to behaviors toward the expected outcomes. Not surprisingly, where teachers report higher levels of self-efficacy, they exhibit more organizational behaviors. Teachers who have high expectations of themselves to perform effectively and successfully in school will carry out extra functions beyond the formal ones and will feel more committed to their school and to the teaching profession. With regard to status, our findings demonstrate that teachers who have a high sense of status in their work tend to invest in more OCBs and to feel more committed to the organization and to the teaching profession than teachers who do not express that level of status recognition. Teachers who perceive that they have the professional respect and admiration of their colleagues, in addition to acknowledgement of their expertise and knowledge, will be more inclined to contribute to their schools. Their contribution will be exhibited in the expression of greater commitment to the profession and the organization and in practicing OCBs that reflect helping others (students, colleagues, and the organization as a whole). Professional growth, oneâ„ ¢s belief that one works in a supportive and nurturing environment that stimulates professional growth and development, may impact oneâ„ ¢s feeling of commitment to the organization and the profession. The more teachers perceive that they have opportunities for professional growth, the more they will strive to act for the good of the organization and the profession. According to Firestone and Pennell (1993), the knowledge demands of the new teaching strategies have stimulated the need to bring about the professionalization of teaching, of which professional growth is one measure. Teachersâ„ ¢ commitment depends on their drive and will to grow professionally, a fact that has implications for the quality of instruction that the teachers will maintain. Lastly, participation in decision-making, the subscale of teacher empowerment that was one of the predictors of OCB, was found in previous research to be linked to OCB (e.g., Vanyperen et al., 1999). Participation in decision-making is joint decision-making or decision-making that is a product of shared influence by a superior and his or her employee (Koopman Wierdsma, 1998). It was found to affect job satisfaction (Rice Schneider, 1994) and as such, it is reasonable to assume that teachers satisfied with their jobs will, among others, exhibit more OCBs. A number of studies have shown a positive relationship between participation in decision-making and organizational commitment (e.g., Hoy, Tartar, Bliss, 1990; Louis Smith, 1991). In the present study, there was significant positive correlation between the two; however, decision-making was not found to be a predictor of organizational commitment ARTICLE IN PRESS 284 R. Bogler, A. Somech / Teaching and Teacher Education 20 (2004) 277â€Å"289 but rather of OCB. One might expect that teachers who report that they participate in decisionmaking processes in their school will show more OCBs that are reflected in activities beyond their existing role expectations. However, it was surprising that participative decision-making was not found to be a predictor of organizational commitment. One explanation for this finding may be the fact that decision-making was treated as a onedimensional construct rather than a two-dimensional one. Decision-making in the school setting involves participation in decision-making in the technical domain (i.e., dealing with students and instruction), and in the managerial domain (i.e., dealing with school operations and administration). By combining these two dimensions, which may sometimes conflict, we may have caused cancellation out of both. In another study, Somech and Bogler (2002) found that teachersâ„ ¢ participation in technical decisions did not predict organizational commitment; however, teachersâ„ ¢ participation in managerial decisions was found to predict organizational commitment. Findings regarding the significant positive correlation between organizational commitment and PC confirm previous research (e.g., Cohen, 2000), and contradict other research that asserted that there may be a conflict between the two concepts (e.g., Wallace, 1993). The results of the present study may imply that there is no inherent conflict between organizational commitment and PC, although a tension between the two may exist (Aranya Ferris, 1984). Teacherâ„ ¢s perceived autonomy and impact were the least effective predictors of any of the outcomes examined, since both these variables were excluded from the regression equation. Although these findings are consistent with other research which examined the predictors of job satisfaction and organizational commitment among the six dimensions of teacher empowerment (Wu Short, 1996), they are somewhat surprising. One would expect teachers who experience a high level of autonomy and feel that they have great impact on what is going in school, to report higher levels of commitment to the school and to their profession and to contribute more than expected of them to the school. The current results imply that the two constructs, autonomy and impact, may not be directly related to the outcomes examined here since individuals who feel that they are autonomous and have impact in their workplace do not necessarily translate these feelings into behaviors that reflect great commitment to the organization, to the profession, or to OCB. It is interesting to relate OCB to the concept of a teacher professional community or a teacher learning community (Darling-Hammond Sykes, 1999). A professional community of teachers is characterized by three key features: a common set of activities that provide frequent face-to-face interaction, specific organizational structures to assist in developing common understandings, values and expectations for behavior to evolve, and a core of shared values regarding what students should learn, how faculty and students should behave and the shared goals to maintain and support the community (Louis, Kruse, Bryk, 1995). Obviously, such a professional learning community involves the establishment of a school-wide culture that makes collaboration expected, wide-ranging, authentic, continuing, and focused on student outcomes (Toole Louis, 2002, Chapter 8). In order for such a community to exist, it is expected that extra-role behaviors, in addition to in-role behaviors, should be implemented in the school setting. Without applying discretionary behaviors that go beyond the existing role expectations, and that are directed to the students, the teachers and the school organization as a unit, it would be almost impossible for a community of teachers to become a professional learning community. Kruse, Louis and Bryk (1995) indicate that one of the preconditionsâ„ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ for the development of a professional learning community is the openness to improvement, trust and respect, access to expertise, supportive leadership and socialization. To achieve these human and social resources, it is crucial that teachers demonstrate OCB, since this affects the social and psychological environment of the organization reflected in shared norms and values, a focus on student learning, reflective dialogue with colleagues, and peer collaboration. ARTICLE IN PRESS R. Bogler, A. Somech / Teaching and Teacher Education 20 (2004) 277â€Å"289 285 5. Conclusions and implications This study primarily investigated the relationship between teacher empowerment and organizational commitment, PC and OCB. The findings demonstrate that a number of teacher empowerment dimensions have an impact on these outcomes in the school setting, but a number of limitations should be considered when interpreting these findings. First, since all measures used are self-reports, common method variance is a problem, as well as social desirability effects. Although self-report data are commonly used to measure individual self-perception (Spector, 1994), one should bear in mind that they may not reflect the actual performance of the respondents. Second, although in selecting the sampled schools, care was taken with regard to the representation of urban, suburban and rural schools serving diverse populations that represented the composition of teachers in Israel with regard to gender, religion, age and education, we cannot generalize from this sample to all middle and high schools in Israel since the schools were located in the northern and central parts of Israel. Related to the issue of sampling is our 41 percent response rate, a rate not unusual in social science studies (e.g., Bogler, 1994; Kidder, 2002; Williams Shiaw, 1999), but a factor which should be kept in mind when attempting to generalize to a larger population. A study that randomly and representatively samples all the middle and high schools in the country could allow such generalization. In addition, this study viewed each variable as a single scale rather than as a multi-faceted one. In contrast, organizational commitment was studied elsewhere (Hartmann Bambacas, 2000) as a multi-method scale with three dimensions: affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. This multi-level method may provide a better understanding of the phenomenon than using a single scale. One of the important contributions of the present study is that it underscores the relative effects of four teacher empowerment dimensions on the important outcomes of organizational commitment, PC and OCB in the school. These outcomes have been found to be beneficial to organizations. PC is considered a major determinant of organizational effectiveness (Pfeffer, 1994) and individual motivation (Hackman and Lawler, 1971). Organizational commitment has been found to affect employee identification with the organization, level of effort, and turnover (Stroh Reilly, 1997). OCB has been linked to increased performance (Brief Motowidlo, 1989). Two of the teacher empowerment dimensions, self-efficacy and status, appear to be crucial in predicting all three organizational outcomes and should therefore be strongly acknowledged by school principals who strive to raise teachersâ„ ¢ commitment to the organization and to the profession and to increase teachersâ„ ¢ motivation toward OCB for the benefit of the school. Principals need to establish working conditions that will bring teachers to perceive themselves as having a high level of competency, and experiencing high status and selfesteem. Second, teachers who view themselves as professionals or perceive opportunities to grow professionally may contribute more to the school as their commitment to the organization and to the profession increases. Principals need to recognize that the feelings and perceptions of teachers about their schools, and their desire to attain opportunities for professional growth, are beneficial to the organization itself. Finally, based on the finding that participation in decision-making is a predictor of OCB, school principals should acknowledge the significance of the extra-role, rather than the inrole, nature of OCB since it carries great advantages for other members in the organization, including other teachers, students and the school as a whole. Thus, principalsâ„ ¢ practice of jointdecision- making should be recognized as highly important to the organization and its members. The findings of the study should also be acknowledged by policy-makers outside the school on the assumption that achieving high levels of organizational commitment, PC and OCB are important to them. Thus, the Ministry of Education, as the centralized office, and its operational units on the local level, should encourage participation of teachers in seminars and programs that stress teachersâ„ ¢ professional growth and self-efficacy. It is assumed that once the teachers experience ARTICLE IN PRESS 286 R. Bogler, A. Somech / Teaching and Teacher Education 20 (2004) 277â€Å"289 greater opportunities for professional growth and acquire greater trust in their ability to achieve high-order goals (i.e., greater self-efficacy), their status will rise as well. As a result, and in addition to participating in shared decision-making with the principal, teachers may feel empowered at school, a fact that will reflect on their feelings of commitment toward the organization, the profession and their extra-role behavior. Possible extensions of this study could be to examine the effects of other variables, such as perceived supervisory support (Vanyperen et al., 1999) or job satisfaction, as mediating variables in the relationship between teacher empowerment (or its subscales) and school outcomes (either those that were examined in the present study or others). 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